The Worship of Mithras

It is not clear exactly when and where the worship of Mithras started, but what is apparent is that the Romans were influenced by the Persian deity Mitra. Not only was the god’s name unchanged, but his relationship with the sun was unaltered, and the Romans retained the Phrygian cap and tunic he was always depicted as wearing. Mithras was certainly known in Rome by the late first century CE: in c. 80–92 CE, the poet Statius makes a comment about Mithras twisting the horns in a Persian cave. The worship of the Roman Mithras became popular among the Imperial Roman army and customs officials (portorium) from the late

 

first century to the end of the fourth century CE. By the late first century, the worship of Mithras had spread from Rome across the empire and became most popular in the western regions of the empire. Nida-Heddernheim on the Rhine frontier and Carnuntum and Novae on the Danube frontier provide the first archaeological and epigraphic evidence for this worship. Belief in Mithras extended into Gaul and Britannia, and although there are some well-preserved Mithraea at sites such as Duro-Europos in Syria and Caesarea Maritima in Israel, comparatively little such material has been found in the eastern part of the empire.

To honour their god, ‘the maker and father of all things’, Mithraic worshippers gathered in buildings that imitated a cave. Modern scholars have termed these buildings Mithraea (singular: Mithraeum, plural: Mithraea) but worshippers within Italy referred to these complexes as spelaea (caves), and templa (temples) when mentioning them to followers outside Italy. Members called themselves syndexioi (united by the handshake). A Mithraeum could seat between 15 and 20 people, but if many remained standing, it could hold up to 40 people. The basic layout consisted of a small rectangular room containing a main nave, surrounded by parallel benches and leading to an altar. In addition to the central cella, extra rooms such as storerooms and kitchens have also been found in certain Mithraea. Some Mithraea have been found with access to water or a well, as well as to a refuse pit. Mithraea had no windows and were synthetically lit, though there is evidence that some Mithraea contained shafts in their roofs to allow light to shine onto the altar area. This lack of lighting suggests followers wanted to achieve a cave-like effect. Some Mithraea have been found to be connected to actual caves, while in others the cella is decorated like a cave. It has been proposed that if followers stood in the middle of the nave then they would be standing in the centre of the universe, as the Mithraeum cella represents an idealised map of the universe. The Mithraeum of the seven spheres at Ostia not only enabled followers to feel they were at the centre of the universe, but its benches depicted the signs of the zodiac, and had planets painted on their sides.

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The most significant image and object in any Mithraeum was the ‘tauroctony’, a depiction of Mithras slaying a bull. This event is usually portrayed as occurring inside a cave, while a dog and snake drink the blood of the bull and a scorpion grips its testes. On the outer parts of the depiction, torch-bearers can be seen standing. Cautes raises his torch, and Cautopates is lowering his torch to his side. The torch-bearers represent the equinoxes. Cautes' torch points upwards to show the spring equinox, while Cautopates' torch points downwards to show the autumn equinox. On the top left, Sol can be seen, while on the top left Luna is depicted. A raven appears as a messenger between Sol and Mithras. There is no written record explaining exactly how to interpret this image, but scholars have suggested that the death of the bull signifies the rebirth of the universe and that the image enables the follower to see light triumph over darkness, and day overnight; Mithras is associated with Sol, and the bull is connected to Luna. This depiction is the culmination of a larger narrative that includes a variety of other chapters. Another significant image after the tauroctony is that of Mithras’ birth from a rock, in which he is shown holding a torch and dagger. How devotees were initiated into the worship of Mithras has been investigated by Gordon, David, Chapula, and Griffith, but it is generally accepted that this was a male-only group. Initiates underwent an intense entry programme. Iconography provides examples of the rituals they performed, which involved being stripped, blindfolded and having their hands tied behind their back. The initiates would then have a number of different weapons pointed to their faces such as swords, torches, and bows and arrows. It is believed that once the initiate had reached an intense and emotional state, the blindfold would be removed, revealing an intense light and an image of Mithras slaying the bull. These interpretations come from the frescos found in the Mithraeum under the Santa Maria Capua Vetere in Italy which date to the early third century. Once initiates had undergone these dramatic tests, they were accepted into the lowest of the seven grades; the Corax (raven).  The seven grades through which initiates might progress are shown on a mosaic found in the Mithraeum of Felicissimus at Ostia. The grades consisted of Corax, (raven), Nymphus (bridegroom), Miles (soldier), Leo (lion), Perses (Persian), Heliodromus (runner of the sun) and the highest of all, Pater (father) and the mosaic clearly shows how each grade was associated with a planet or sign. Another key element of the initiation process was a ritual feast that resembled the meal shared by Sol and Mithras after the slaying of the bull. The significance of this sacrifice is unclear, although wall paintings from the Santa Prisca Mithraeum provide examples of cocks, a bull, and a boar for the Pater. Sacrificial knives have also been found in certain Mithraea.

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By the late fourth century, the worship of Mithras was abandoned, possibly due to the rise of Christianity. Before the fourth century, CE Christian authors wrote of their hatred for the worship of Mithras, and during the fourth century CE Mithras was described as an ‘ill-omened exaltation of a deity and barbarian’. The prefect of Rome, Gracchus, ordered the burning of images and the destruction of a Mithraeum, and another Mithraeum in Alexandria was handed over to the Christians so that they might build over it and dishonour any objects found within. By the late fourth century, the decrees of Theodosius I abolished paganism and changed the religion of the Roman Empire to Nicene Christianity. Thus, the worshippers of Mithras were thought to have been driven from existence.